Drugs and Driving Literature

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Amphetamine/Methamphetamine/MDMA

• Adderall® Tablets. In: Physician Desk Reference, 3131-3134 (2005)
• Asghar, SJ. et al. Relationship of plasma amphetamine levels to physiological, subjective, cognitive biochemical measures in healthy volunteers. Human Psychopharmacology 18: 291-299 (2003)
• Crifasi J, Long C. Traffic fatality related to the use of methylenedioxymethamphetamine. J Forensic Sci 41:1082 (1996)
• de la Torre, R. et al. Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA (“ecstasy”) in humans. Br J Clin Pharmacol 49:104 (2000)
• Jones, A.W. et al. Driving under the influence of central stimulant amines: age and gender differences in concentrations of amphetamine, methamphetamine, and ecstasy in blood. J Stud Alcohol Drugs 69:202-208 (2008)
• Jones, A.W.Elimination half-lives of benzoylecgonine and MDMA in an apprehended driver. J Anal Toxicol 32:197-198 (2008)
• Kuypers, K.P. et al. MDMA and alcohol effects, combined and alone, on objective and subjective measures of actual driving performance and psychomotor function. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 187:467-475 (2006)
• Kuypers, K.P. et al.Acute effects of nocturnal doses of MDMA on measures of impulsivity and psychomotor performance throughout the night. Psychopharmacology (Berl)192:111-119 (2007)
• Lamers, C.T. et al. Dissociable effects of a single dose of ecstasy (MDMA) on psychomotor skills and attentional performance. J Psychopharmacol 17:379-387 (2003)
• Logan, B.K. et al. Methamphetamine and Driving Impairment. Journal of Forensic Sciences 41:457-464 (1996)
• Logan, B.K. et al. Amphetamines: An Update on Forensic Issues. J Anal Toxicol 25:400-404 (2001)
• Logan, B.K. and Couper, F.J. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) and driving impairment. J Forensic Sci 46:1426 (2001)
• Logan, B.K. and Couper, F.J. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine — Effects on Human Performance and Behavior. Forensic Sci Rev 15:11-28 (2003)
• McKetin, R. et al. Attention and memory in illicit amphetamine users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 48:235-242 (1997)
• Moeller, M.R. and Hartung, M. Ecstasy and related substances — serum levels in impaired drivers. J Anal Toxicol 21:591 (1997)

Barbiturates

• Cary, P.L. et al. Driving under the influence of phenobarbital. J Forensic Sci 28:502-504 (1983)
• Drost, M.L. and Walter, L. Blood plasma concentrations of butalbital following single oral doses in man. J Anal Toxicol 12:322-324 (1988)
• Yeakel, J.K. and Logan, B.K. Butalbital and driving impairment. J Forensic Sci 58:941-945 (2013)

Benzodiazepines General

• Dubois, S., et al. The impact of benzodiazepines on safe driving. Traffic Inj Prev 9:404-413 (2008)
• Drummer, O.H. Benzodiazepines – effects on human performance and behavior. Forensic Sci Rev 14:1-14 (2002)
• Harrison, C. et al. Residual effects of zopiclone and benzodiazepine hypnotics on psychomotor performance related to car driving. Drugs Exp Clin Res 11:823-829 (1985)
• van der Sluiszen, N.J.J.M. et al. Driving performance and neurocognitive skills of long-term users of benzodiazepine anxiolytics and hypnotics. Hum Psychopharmacol 34:e2715 (2019)
• Verster, J.C. et al. Blood drug concentrations of benzodiazepines correlate poorly with actual driving impairment. Sleep Med Rev 17:153-159 (2013)
• Willumeit, H.P. et al. Simulated car driving as a useful technique for the determination of residual effects and alcohol interaction after short- and long-acting benzodiazepines. Psychopharmacology Suppl 1:182-192 (1984)

Alprazolam

• Leufkens, T.R., et al. Cognitive, psychomotor and actual driving performance in healthy volunteers after immediate and extended release formulations of alprazolam 1 mg. Psychopharmacology 191:951-959 (2007)
• Moffat, A.C., et al. Alprazolam. In: Clark's Analysis of Drugs and Poisons (3^rd ed.), Grayslake, IL: Pharmaceutical Press; 605-606 (2004)
• Stone, B.T., et al. Behavioral and neurophysiological signatures of benzodiazepine-related driving impairments. Front Psychol 6:1799 (2015)
• Verster, J.C., et al. Effects of alprazolam on driving ability, memory functioning and psychomotor performance: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Neuropsychopharmacology 27:260-269 (2002)
• Verster, J.C. and Volkerts, E.R. Clinical pharmacology, clinical efficacy, and behavioral toxicity of alprazolam: a review of the literature. CNS Drugs Rev 10:45-76 (2004)
• "Xanax." Pfizer.com. Pfizer.com, Dec. 2006. Web. 22 Aug. 2012. http://labeling.pfizer.com/ShowLabeling.aspx?id=547.

Clonazepam

• Santos, FM et al. Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Modeling of Psychomotor Impairment Induced by Oral Clonazepam in Healthy volunteers. Ther Drug Monit 31:566-574 (2009)
• Wildin, J.D. et al. Respiratory and sedative effects of clobazam and clonazepam in volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmac 29:169-177 (1990)

Diazepam

• Boucart, M. et al. Diazepam impairs temporal dynamics of visual attention. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 15:115-122 (2007)
• Bramness, J.G. et al. Testing for benzodiazepine inebriation-relationship between benzodiazepine concentration and simple clinical tests for impairment in a sample of drugged drivers. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 59:593-601 (2003)
• Greenblatt, D.J. et al. A large-sample study of diazepam pharmacokinetics. Ther Drug Monitor 11:652-657 (1989)
• Jones, A.W. et al. High concentrations of diazepam and nordiazepam in blood of impaired drivers: association with age, gender and spectrum of other drugs present. Forensic Sci Int 146:1-7 (2004)
• Jongen, S. et al. Comparing the effects of oxazepam and diazepam in actual highway driving and neurocognitive test performance: a validation study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 235:1283-1294 (2018)
• Mattila, M. Acute and subacute effects of diazepam on human performance: comparison of plain tablet and controlled release capsule. Pharmacol Toxicol 63:369-374 (1988)
• Moskowitz, H. and Burns, M. The effects on performance of two antidepressants, alone and in combination with diazepam. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 12:783-792 (1988)
• O’Hanlon, J.F. et al. Diazepam impairs lateral position control in highway driving. Science 217:79-81 (1982)
• O’Hanlon, J.F. et al. Anxiolytics’ effects on the actual driving performance of patients and healthy volunteers in a standardized test. Neuropsychobiology 31:81-88 (1995)
• Seppala, T. et al. Residual effects and skills related to driving after a single oral administration of diazepam, medazepam or lorazepam. Br J Clin Pharmacol 3:831-841 (1976)
• Silvestri, T.M. et al. Pharmacokinetics of diazepam during multiple dosing of a 6-mg controlled-release capsule once daily. Ther Drug Monitor 10:64-68 (1988)
• “Valium®.” Physicians’ Desk Reference 2006. Montvale, MJ: Thomson PDR, 2822-2823 (2006)
• Vanakoski, J. et al. Driving under light and dark conditions: effects of alcohol and diazepam in young and older subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 56:453-458 (2000)

Lorazepam

• Clarkson, J.E. et al. Lorazepam and driving impairment. J Anal Toxicol 28:475-480 (2004)
• Daurat, A. et al. Lorazepam impairs highway driving performance more than heavy alcohol consumption. Accid Anal Prev 60:31-34 (2013)
• Greenblatt, D.J. et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of lorazepam. I. Absorption and disposition of oral 14C-lorazepam. Clin Pharmacol Ther 20:329-41 (1976)
• Kyriakopoulos, A.A. et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of lorazepam: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 39:16-23 (1978)
• O’Hanlon, J.F., et al. Anxiolytics’ effects on the actual driving performance of patients and healthy volunteers in standardized test. Neuropsychobiology:31:81-88 (1995)
• Seppala, T. et al. Residual effects and skills related to driving after a single oral administration of diazepam, medazepam or lorazepam. Br J Clin Pharmac 3:831-841(1976)

Cannabis

• Arkell, T.R. et al. Cannabidiol (CBD) content in vaporized cannabis does not prevent tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-induced impairment of driving and cognition. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 236:2713-2724 (2019)
• Bidwell, L.C. et al. Association of naturalistic administration of cannabis flower and concentrates with intoxication and impairment. JAMA Psychiatry 77:787-796 (2020)
• Bondallaz, P. et al. Cannabis and its effects on driving skills. Forensic Sci Int 268:92-102 (2016)
• Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets – Cannabis/Marijuana (Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC), National Highway and Safety Administration, DOT HS 809 725 (2004)
• Dubois, S. et al. The combined effects of alcohol and cannabis on driving: Impact on crash risk. Forensic Sci Int 248:94-100 (2015)
• Hartley, S. et al. Effect of smoked cannabis on vigilance and accident risk using simulated driving in occasional and chronic users and the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship. Clin Chem 65:684-693 (2019)
• Hartman, R.L. et al. Cannabis effects on driving skills. Clin Chem 59:478-492 (2013)
• Hartman, R.L. et al. Cannabis effects on driving lateral control with and without alcohol. Drug Alcohol Depend 154:25-37 (2015)
• Hartman, R.L. et al. Cannabis effects on driving longitudinal control with and without alcohol. J Appl Toxicol 36:1418-1429 (2016)
• Hartman, R.L. et al. Effect of blood collection time on measured Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations: implications for driving interpretation and drug policy. Clin Chem 62:367-377 (2016)
• Huestis, M.A. et al. Blood cannabinoids. I. Absorption of THC and formation of 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH during and after smoking marijuana. J Anal Toxicol16: 276-282 (1992)
• Huestis, MA. Cannabis (Marijuana) – Effects on Human Behavior and Performance. In: Forensic Science Review, Birmingham, Alabama: Central Police University Press, 2002: 16-60.
• Martin, J.L. et al. Cannabis, alcohol and fatal road accidents. PLoS One 12:e0187320 (2017)
• National Safety Council-Committee on Alcohol and Other Drugs. Position on the Use of Cannabis (Marijuana) and Driving. J Anal Toxicol 37:47-49 (2013)
• Neavyn, M.J. et al. Medical marijuana and driving: a review. J Med Toxicol 10:269-279 (2014)
• Newmeyer, M.N. et al. Evaluation of divided attention psychophysical task performance and effects on pupil sizes following smoked, vaporized and oral cannabis administration. J Appl Toxicol 37:992-932 (2017)
• Ramaekers, J.G. et al. Marijuana, alcohol and actual driving performance. Hum Psychopharmacol 15:551-558 (2000)
• Ramaekers, J.G. et al. High-potency marijuana impairs executive function and inhibitory motor control. Neuropsychopharmacology 31:2296-2303 (2006)

Cocaine

• Dean, R.A. et al. Human liver cocaine esterases: ethanol-mediated formation of ethylcocaine. FASEB J 5:2735-2739 (1991)
• Dussault, C. et al.The role of cocaine in fatal crashes: first results of the Québec drug study. Annu Proc Assoc Adv Automot Med. 45:125-37 (2001)
• Farooq, M.U. et al. Neurotoxic and cardiotoxic effects of cocaine and ethanol. J Med Toxicol 5:134-138 (2009)
• Heishman, S.J. et al. Laboratory validation study of drug evaluation and classification program: ethanol, cocaine, and marijuana. J Anal Toxicol 20:468-483 (1996)
• Isenschmid, D.S. Cocaine: effects on human performance and behavior. Forensic Sci Rev 14:61-100 (2002)
• Jones, A.W. et al. Concentrations of cocaine and its major metabolite benzoylecgonine in blood samples from apprehended drivers in Sweden. Forensic Sci Int 177:133-139 (2008)
• Jones, A.W. Forensic Drug Profile: Cocaethylene. J Anal Toxicol 43:155-160 (2019)
• MacDonald, S. et al. Driving behavior under the influence of cannabis or cocaine. Traffic Inj Prev 9:190-194 (2008)
• Musshoff, F. and Madea, B. Cocaine and benzoylecgonine concentrations in fluorinated plasma samples of drivers under suspicion of driving under the influence. Forensic Sci Int 200:67-72 (2010)
• Siegel, R.K. Cocaine and Driving Behavior. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving3(1): 1-8 (1987)

Hypnotics

• Berlin, I. et al. Comparison of the effects of zolpidem and triazolam on memory functions, psychomotor performances, and postural sway in healthy subjects. J Clin Psychopharmacol 13:100-106 (1993)
• Bocca, M.L. et al. Residual effect of zolpidem 10 mg and zopiclone 7.5 mg versus flunitrazepam 1 mg and placebo on driving performance and ocular saccades. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 143:373-379 (1999)
• Boyle, J. et al. Next-day cognition, psychomotor function, and driving-related skills following nighttime administration of eszopiclone. Hum Psychopharmacol 23:385-397 (2008)
• DeClerk, A.C. et al. Short-term safety profile of zolpidem. Objective measures of cognitive effects. Eur Psychiat 12 (Suppl 1):15S-20S (1997)
• Drover, D. R. Comparative pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of short-acting hypnosedatives: zaleplon, zolpidem and zopiclone. Clin Pharmacokinet 43:227-238 (2004)
• Gunja, N. In the Zzz zone: the effects of Z-drugs on human performance and driving. J Med Toxicol 9:163-171 (2013)
• Hajak, G. and Muller, W.E. Abuse and dependence potential for the non-benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case reports and epidemiological data. Addiction 98:1371-1378 (2003)
• Hesse, L.M. et al. Clinically important drug interactions with zopiclone, zolpidem and zaleplon. CNS Drugs 17:513-532 (2003).
• Hindmarch, I. et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled investigation of the residual psychomotor and cognitive effects of zolpidem-MR in healthy elderly volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 62:538-545 (2006)
• Hindmarch, I., A. Patat, et al. Residual effects of zaleplon and zolpidem following middle of the night administration five hours to one hour before awakening. Hum Psychopharmacol 16:159-167 (2001)
• Ito, S.U. and Kanbayashi, T. Acute effects of zolpidem on daytime alertness, psychomotor and physical performance. Neurosci Res 59:309-13 (2007)
• Logan, B. K. and F. J. Couper. Zolpidem and driving impairment. J Forensic Sci 46:105-10 (2001)
• Mattila, M.J. et al. Effects of alcohol, zolpidem, and some other sedatives and hypnotics on human performance and memory. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 59:917-923 (1998)
• Orriols, L. et al. Benzodiazepine-like hypnotics and the associated risk of road traffic accidents. Clin Pharmacol Ther 89:595-601 (2011)
• Vermeeren, A. et al. On-the-road driving performance the morning after bedtime use of suvorexant 20 and 40 mg: a study in non-elderly healthy volunteers. Sleep 38:1803-1813 (2015)
• Vermeeren, A. et al. On-the-road driving performance the morning after bedtime use of suvorexant 15 and 30 mg in healthy elderly. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 233:3341-3351 (2016)
• Verster, JC, Volkerts ER, Olivier B, Johnson W, Liddicoat L. Zolpidem and traffic safety - the importance of treatment compliance. Curr Drug Saf 2:220-226 (2007)
• Verster, J. C. et al. Residual effects of middle-of-the-night administration of zaleplon and zolpidem on driving ability, memory functions, and psychomotor performance. J Clin Psychopharmacol 22:576-583 (2002)
• Verster, J. C. and Roth, T. Gender differences in highway driving performance after administration of sleep medication: a review of the literature. J Clin Psychopharmacol 22:576-583 (2002)
• Wilkinson, C.J. The acute effects of zolpidem, administered alone and with alcohol, on cognitive and psychomotor function. J Clin Psychiatry 56:309-318 (1995)

Muscle Relaxants

• Bramness, J.G. et al. Impairment due to intake of carisoprodol. Drug Alcohol Depend 74:311-318 (2004)
• Littrell, R.A. et al. Case report: meprobamate dependence secondary to carisoprodol (Soma) use. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 19:133-134 (1993)
• Logan, B.K, et al. Carisoprodol, meprobamate and driving impairment. J Forens Sci 45:619-623 (2000)
• Reeves, R.R. et al. Use of carisoprodol by substance abusers to modify the effects of illicit drugs. South Med J 92:441 (1999)
• Robertson, M.D. and Marinetti, L.J. Carisoprodol – Effects on human performance and behavior. Forensic Sci Rev15:1-10 (2003)
• Waterloo, K. et al. The effect of carisoprodol on performance on repeatedly administered neuropsychological tests. Hum Psychopharmacol 12:393-396 (1997)
• Zacny, J.P. et al. Characterizing the subjective and psychomotor effects of carisoprodol in healthy volunteers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 100:138-143 (2011)
• Zacny, J.P. et al. Subjective and psychomotor effects of carisoprodol in combination with oxycodone in healthy volunteers. Drug Alcohol Depend 120:229-232 (2012)

Opioids General

• Fishbain, D.A. et al. Can patients taking opioids drive safely? A structured evidence-based review. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother 16:9-28 (2002)
• Kress, H.G. and Kraft, B. Opioid medication and driving ability. Eur J Pain 9:141-144 (2005)
• Murray, R. et al. Minireview: The pupillary effects of opioids. Life Sci 33:495-509 (1983)
• Pickworth, W.B. et al. Opiate-induced pupillary effects in humans. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 11:759-763 (1989)
• Stout, P.R. et al. Opioids: effects on human performance and behavior. Forensic Sci Rev 15:29-59 (2002)
• Willhelmi, B.G. and Cohen, S.P. A framework for "driving under the influence of drugs" policy for the opioid using driver. Pain Physician 15(3 Suppl):ES215-230 (2012)
• Zacny J.P. Should people taking opioids for medical reasons be allowed to work and drive? Addiction 91:1581-1584 (1996)

Buprenorphine

• Baewert, A. et al. Influence of peak and trough levels of opioid maintenance therapy on driving aptitude. Eur Addict Res 13:127-135 (2007)
• Chang, Y. and Moody, D.E. Effect of benzodiazepines on the metabolism of buprenorphine in human liver microsomes. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 60:875-881 (2005)
• Cicero, T. et al. Use and misuse of buprenorphine in the management of opioid addiction. J. Opioid Manag 3:6 (2007)
• de los Cobos, J.P. et al. A controlled trial of daily versus thrice-weekly buprenorphine administration for the treatment of opioid dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 59: 223-233 (2000)
• Edwards, L.D. Bupenorphine in Wisconsin drivers: concerns for impairment? J Anal Toxicol 43:644-650 (2019)
• Elkader, A. and Sproule, B. Buprenorphine: Clinical pharmacokinetics in the treatment of opioid dependence. Clin Pharmacokinet 44:661-680 (2005)
• Kuhlman, J.J. et al. Human pharmacokinetics of intravenous, sublingual, and buccal buprenorphine. J Anal Toxicol 20:369-378 (1996)
• Lenné, M.G. et al. The effects of the opioid pharmacotherapies methadone, LAAM and buprenorphine, alone and in combination with alcohol, on simulated driving. Drug Alcohol Depend 72:271-278 (2003)
• Strand, M.C. et al. A clinical trial on the acute effects of methadone and buprenorphine on actual driving and cognitive function of healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 85:442-453 (2019)

Codeine

• Amato, J.N. et al. Effects of three therapeutic doses of codeine/paracetamol on driving performance, a psychomotor vigilance test, and subjective feelings. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 228:309-320 (2013)
• Gasche, Y. et al. Codeine intoxication associated with ultrarapid CYP2D6 metabolism. New Eng J Med 351:2827-2831 (2004)
• Gjerde, H. and Morland, J. A case of high opiate tolerance: implications for drug analyses and interpretations. Int J Leg Med 351:2827-2831 (2004)
• Guay, D.R.P. et al. Pharmacokinetics of codeine after single- and multiple-oral-dose administration to normal volunteers. J Clin Pharm 27:983-987 (1987)
• Kim, I. et al. Plasma and oral fluid pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics after oral codeine administration. Clin Chem 48:1486-1496 (2002)
• Kirchheiner, J. et al. Pharmacokinetics of codeine and its metabolite morphine in ultra-rapid metabolizers due to CYP2D6 duplication. Pharmacogenomics J 7:257-265 (2007)
• Oyler, J.M. et al. Identification of hydrocodone in human urine following controlled codeine administration. J Anal Toxicol 24:530-535 (2000)
• Knaggs, R.D. et al. The pupillary effects of intravenous morphine, codeine, and tramadol in volunteers. Anesth Analg 99:108-112 (2004)
• Linnoila, M. and Häkkinen, S. Effects of diazepam and codeine, alone and in combination with alcohol, on simulated driving. Clin Pharmacol Ther 15:368-373 (1974)
• Peacock, J.E. Changes in pupil diameter after oral administration of codeine. Br J Anaesth 61:598-600 (1988)
• Zacny, J.P. Differential effects of morphine and codeine on pupil size: dosing issues. Anesth Analg 100:598 (2005)

Fentanyl

• [New] Kiely, E. and Juhascik, M. Fentanyl, Acetylfentanyl and Carfentanil in Impaired Driving Cases: A Review of 270 Cases. J Anal Toxicol 45:913-917 (2021)
• Rohrig, T.P. et al. Fentanyl and driving impairment. J Anal Toxicol 45:389-396 (2021)
• Stevenson, G.W. et al. Driving ability after intravenous fentanyl or diazepam. A controlled double-blind study. Invest Radiol 21:717-719 (1986)
• Scholz, J. et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of alfentanil, fentanyl and sufentanil. An update. Clin Pharmacokinet 31:275-292 (1996)

Hydrocodone

• Zacny, J.P. et al. Profiling the subjective, psychomotor, and physiological effects of a hydrocodone/acetaminophen product in recreational drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend 78:243-252 (2005)
• Melhem, M.R. et al. Population pharmacokinetics analysis for hydrocodone following the administration of hydrocodone bitartrate extended-release capsules. Clin Pharmacokinet 52:907-917 (2013)
• Molina, D.K. and Hargrove, V.M. What is the lethal concentration of hydrocodone?: a comparison of postmortem hydrocodone concentrations in lethal and incidental intoxications. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 32:108-111 (2011)

Heroin/6-Acetylmorphine/Morphine

• Jenkins, A.J. et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of smoked heroin. J Anal Toxicol 18:317-330 (1994)
• Jones, A.W. et al. Driving under the influence of opiates: concentration relationships between morphine, codeine, 6-acetyl morphine, and ethyl morphine in blood. J Anal Toxicol 32:265-272 (2008)
• Jones, A.W. et al. Concentrations of free-morphine in peripheral blood after recent use of heroin in overdose deaths and in apprehended drivers. Forensic Sci Int 215:18-24 (2012)
• Knaggs, R.D. et al. The pupillary effects of intravenous morphine, codeine, and tramadol in volunteers. Anesth Analg 99:108-112 (2004)
• Lugo, R.A. and Kern, S.E. Clinical pharmacokinetics of morphine. J Pain Palliat Care 16:5-18 (2002)
• Strand, M.C., et al. Acute impairing effects of morphine related to driving: A systematic review of experimental studies to define blood morphine concentrations related to impairment in opioid-naïve subjects. Traffic Inj Prev 18:788-794 (2017)
• Tress, K.H. et al. Degree of tolerance and the relationship between plasma morphine concentration and pupil diameter following intravenous heroin in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 5:299-303 (1978)
• Tress, K.H. and El-Sobky, A.A. Pupil responses to intravenous heroin (diamorphine) in dependent and non-dependent humans. Br J Clin Pharmacol 7:213-217 (1979)
• Zacny, J.P. Differential effects of morphine and codeine on pupil size: dosing issues. Anesth Analg 100:598 (2005)

Methadone

• Fuller, DC. Methadone, old drug, new challenges. ToxTalk 32:20-23 (2008)
• Jones, A.W. Blood methadone concentrations in living and deceased persons: variations over time, subject demographics, and relevance of coingested drugs. J Anal Toxicol 36:12-18 (2012)
• Lipman, J.J. The methadone poisoning “Epidemic”. The Forensic Examiner (2008) www.acfei.com.
• Strand, M.C. et al. Can patients receiving opioid maintenance therapy safely drive? A systematic review of epidemiological and experimental studies on driving ability with a focus on concomitant methadone or buprenorphine administration. Traffic Inj Prev 14:26-38 (2013)

Oxycodone

• Jung, B.F. et al. Interpretation of opioid levels: Comparison of levels during chronic pain therapy to levels from forensic autopsies. Clin Pharmacol Ther 77:324-334 (2005)
• Lalovik, B. et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral oxycodone in healthy human subjects: Role of circulating active metabolites. Clin Pharmacol Ther 79:461-479 (2006)
• Leow, K.P. et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oxycodone when given intravenously and rectally to adult patients with cancer pain. Anesth Anal 80:296-302 (1995)
• Poyhia, R. et al. The pharmacokinetics and metabolism of oxycodone after intramuscular and oral administration to healthy subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol 33:617-621 (1992)
• Takala, A. et al. Pharmacokinetic comparison of intravenous and intranasal administration of oxycodone. ACTA Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 41:309-312 (1997)
• Verster, J.C. et al. Effects of an opioid (oxycodone/paracetamol) and an NSAID (bromfenac) on driving ability, memory functioning, psychomotor performance, pupil size, and mood. Clin J Pain 22:499-504 (2006)
• Williams, R.H. et al. Oxycodone – Laboratory procedures for identifying overdose and abuse. Clinical Laboratory News (2003)
• Zacny, J.P. and Gutierrez, Z. Characterizing the subjective, psychomotor, and physiological effects of oral oxycodone in non-drug-abusing volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 170:242-254 (2003)

Tramadol

• Clarkson, J.E., et al. Tramadol (Ultram) concentrations in death investigation and impaired driving cases and their significance. J Forensic Sci 49:1101-1105 (2004)
• Nakhaee, S., et al. A review on tramadol toxicity: mechanism of action, clinical presentation, and treatment. Forensic Toxicol 39:293-310 (2021)

PCP (Phencyclidine)

• Bailey, D.N. Phencyclidine abuse. Clinical findings and concentrations in biological fluids after nonfatal intoxication. Am J Clin Pathol 72:795-799 (1979)
• Kunsman, G.W., et al. Phencyclidine blood concentrations in DRE cases. J Anal Toxicol 21:498-502 (1997)
• Lee, D. and Stout, P. Toxicological and demographic profiles of phencyclidine-impaired driving cases in Houston. J Anal Toxicol 44:499-503 (2020)
• Mozayani, A. Phencyclidine – effects on human performance and behavior. Forensic Sci Rev 15:61-74 (2002)
• Mozayani, A. Ketamine – effects on human performance and behavior. Forensic Sci Rev 14:123-131 (2002)
• Simpson, G.M. et al. Urine phencyclidine excretion in chronic abusers. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 19:1051-1059 (1982)

General Drug Driving References

• Augsburger, M. et al. Concentration of drugs in blood of suspected impaired drivers. Forensic Sci Int 153:11-15 (2005)
• Baselt, R.C. Drug Effects on Psychomotor Performance, Foster City, California:Biomedical Publications, 2001
• Baselt, R.C. Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man (12^th ed.), Foster City, California: Biomedical Publications, 2020
• Dassanayake, T. et al. Effects of benzodiazepines, antidepressants and opioids on driving: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological and experimental evidence. Drug Saf 34:125-156 (2011)
• Drugged Driving Expert Panel Report: A Consensus Protocol for Assessing the Potential of Drugs to Impair Driving, NHTSA, DOT HS 811 438 (2011)
• Gjerde, H.et al. Driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs - an update part 1: epidemiological studies. Forensic Sci Rev 27:89-113 (2015)
• Jones, A.W. et al. Concentrations of Scheduled Prescription Drugs in Blood of Impaired Drivers: Considerations for Interpreting the Results. Ther Drug Monitor 29:248-260 (2007)
• Leung, S.Y. Benzodiazepines, opioids and driving: an overview of the experimental research. Drug Alcohol Rev 30:281-286 (2011)
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